A bi-directional current source for a grounded load will always have some complication in its construction. The improved Howland Current Pump as shown in Figure 1 is the most frequent choice for this ...

Let's start with DC voltage, one of the simplest and most-used multimeter measurements. The DC voltage measurement is used to determine the difference in electrical potential between two points in a ...

Electrical components, like motors close motorA device which spins when current flows through it. Motors are used in fans, food processors and many other devices. and lamps close lampA component which ...

The op amp-based current sensing circuit described here is not new, it has been around for some time, but with very little discussion of the circuit itself. Somewhere along the line it was informally ...